Machining

Explore milling, lathe operations, feeds and speeds, and how dimensions determine whether parts fit.

Milling

Climb and Conventional Milling Climb and conventional milling name the cutter's rotation relative to the feed; that relationship changes chip formation, force direction, chip evacuation and the importance of backlash. End Mill Anatomy and Cutter Selection Read end mill geometry, compare flute counts and tool materials, and choose a cutter for the material and operation. Feeds and Speeds Six key quantities connect cutting data to the machine and the cut: cutting speed, feed per tooth, spindle speed, table feed, radial engagement and axial depth. G-code and Toolpaths How a CNC mill reads a program line by line: rapid and feed moves, absolute and incremental coordinates, units, arcs and a drilling cycle. Build a program from blocks and watch it cut a simulated block. Machining Keyseats and Keyways Choose a shaft or hub cutting method, then check keyseat or keyway location, width, depth and fit. Mill Indicators and Part Zero Choose an indicator for alignment, account for edge-finder radius, and keep machine home, work zero and tool length separate. Mill Toolholders and Collets Match the spindle interface, compare tool-gripping mechanisms by five job criteria, and assemble ER collets with the required grip and reach. Milling Chatter What milling chatter is, why it damages finish, accuracy and tools, and how to diagnose the force path before changing one permitted variable at a time. Milling Operations Make a part on a simulated vertical mill: choose each tool, move it through the metal, and check what is left against the drawing. Facing, shoulders, pockets, slots, drilled, tapped and bored holes, countersinks and chamfers. Milling Vises and Strap Clamps Seat and align a milling vise, support work on parallels or soft jaws, and understand how strap-clamp position divides the clamping force. Tool Stickout and Deflection A longer tool reaches farther, but bends much more under the same sideways load. Predict a change, test it, and compare the tool with a fixed baseline. Vertical Mill Anatomy and Motion Identify what moves on a knee mill or bed mill, and distinguish spindle rotation, quill travel, head tram and part coordinates. Vertical Mill Startup, Setup and Shutdown A Tormach-based sequence for preparing the machine, locating the part and tools, checking a path, and closing down.

Turning

Lathe Operations Identify lathe parts, choose workholding and tools, and explore turning operations in a simulator before studying tapers and threads. Single-Point Threading Read thread geometry, distinguish pitch from lead, understand compound infeed and check thread size beyond the outside diameter. Turning Tapers Calculate taper rate, compound angle and tailstock offset, then choose a method and check both slope and size.

Drilling and Threading

Drilling on a Drill Press or Mill Plan hole location, workholding, starting, chip evacuation and depth before drilling, then inspect and deburr the result. Reaming, Boring and Hole Seats Choose a finishing operation by the feature needed: a sized bore, a cylindrical recess, a conical seat or a flat bearing surface. Tap Drills and Tapping Estimate a cutting-tap drill, distinguish thread percentage from engagement length, and plan tap geometry, alignment and depth. Thread Callouts and Threaded Fasteners Decode inch and metric thread names, distinguish thread fit from strength, and choose fastener features by their function. Twist Drills and Drill Sizes Identify the parts that cut and guide a twist drill, compare point shapes, and read the four common drill size systems.

CNC

Absolute and Incremental Positioning Convert between positions and signed moves, and trace the endpoint of a program as its distance mode changes. CNC Axes and Offsets Identify mill and lathe axes, distinguish machine and work zero, and separate work offsets from tool compensation. CNC Control Fundamentals How a control turns a program into motion, how feedback works, and what changes between milling and turning. CNC Program Structure Read program identifiers, startup modes, machine functions, feed modes and drilling cycles in common milling G-code. CNC Programming and Prove-Out Follow the CAD-to-CAM-to-post chain and use graphics, dry run, single block and overrides to check a program against its setup. CNC Turning Profiles and Cycles Account for a rounded tool nose on tapers and arcs, then distinguish roughing, finishing, grooving and threading cycles. CNC Turning Program Walkthrough Trace an original facing, outside roughing, chamfering, finishing and cutoff sequence with every block explained. CNC Turning Setup and Offsets Read lathe X and Z coordinates, identify tooling and workholding, and separate part location from tool geometry and wear. CNC Turning Spindle and Feed Modes Calculate constant-surface-speed RPM, apply an RPM ceiling, and distinguish feed per revolution from feed per minute.

Sawing and Grinding

Bench Work with Hand Tools Hold a part in a bench vise, saw by hand, choose and clean files, and remove burrs without losing the intended shape. Cutoff Sawing Choose a saw for the blank, hold the material securely, and leave enough material for the next operation. Grinding Wheels and Abrasives Match the abrasive to the material, distinguish grit from grade, and read the five main fields of a conventional wheel specification. Offhand Grinding Understand bench and pedestal grinder setup, wheel condition, tool-bit shaping and the difference between rim speed and a wheel's maximum RPM. Precision Grinding Follow surface-grinder motions and workholding, plan small downfeed increments, and distinguish surface, cylindrical and centerless grinding. Saw Blade Selection Use section shape, teeth in the cut, tooth form, set, and blade material to narrow the choice before consulting the maker's chart. Vertical Band Machining Plan contour cuts around blade width and turning radius, and recognize the purpose of blade welding, band filing, and polishing attachments.

Cutting Fluids

Coolant Concentration and Mixing Read Brix, apply the product factor, and balance concentrate and water when mixing a fresh charge or correcting a partly full tank. Coolant Condition and Tank Maintenance Recognize concentration drift and contamination, decide whether to top up or replace, and work through a general tank-cleaning sequence. Cutting Fluids and Application Methods Cutting fluids cool, lubricate, carry chips away and protect surfaces; match the fluid and its delivery to the tool, material and operation.

Measurement and Fit

Choosing Shop Measuring Tools Match the tool to the feature, the allowed size range, and the measurement you need to trust. Reading Measuring Scales Read rules, micrometers, calipers, and verniers by separating the coarse scale from the remainder. Reliable Shop Measurement Control zero, contact force, alignment, cleanliness, and temperature before trusting the last digit. Shop Layout and Angle Measurement Carry dimensions from a reference onto the work with clear lines, checked centers, and correctly read angles. Surface Texture and Finish A machined surface has a lay, a waviness and a roughness; a stylus trace and a filter turn them into Ra, Rz and Rt, and a drawing symbol says what is required and how the surface may be made. Tolerances and Fits The permitted size ranges on a hole and a shaft decide whether the two have clearance, interference, or could have either.

Production and Nontraditional Processes

Automated Manufacturing Cells See how programmed machining, tool changes, pallet handling and robots work together—and what must be reliable before unattended production makes sense. Broaching See how progressive teeth cut a profile, how a guided keyway broach works, and where rotary broaching differs. Chemical Milling and Etching A mask protects selected areas while an etchant dissolves exposed metal; sideways etching limits the detail. Electrical Discharge Machining Sinker and wire EDM use controlled sparks to shape conductive work, with a gap between electrode and finished surface. Electrochemical Machining ECM dissolves conductive metal through an electrolyte rather than removing it with sparks or a cutting edge. Jigs, Fixtures and Repeatable Location Locate a part repeatably, clamp it against supports, and distinguish tool-guiding jigs from workholding fixtures. Laser, Waterjet and Plasma Cutting Compare focused light, moving water and a plasma arc by material, thickness, edge quality and thermal effects. Material-Removal Process Families Sort machine tools by how they remove material, then follow the process that fits the feature. Process Capability and Variation Compare the allowed tolerance band with the process's centre and spread, without mistaking five good parts for proof of capability. Selecting a Material-Removal Process Screen candidates by material, feature access, thickness and surface requirements before comparing production cost. Shop Inspection and Quality Control Check the first part, watch the process during production, and use suitable measurements to decide whether parts meet requirements. Ultrasonic Machining A vibrating tool drives abrasive particles against hard, brittle work without requiring electrical conductivity.